The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki – Glimpses of Male Bondage

[Context: Hrólfr Kraki, (aka) Hroðulf, Rolfo, Roluo, Rolf Krage (early 6th century) was a legendary Danish king who appears in both Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian tradition.]
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"Last battle of Hrolf Kraki."
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During the Dark Ages, the time when the Icelandic tale The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki was set, was a time for a king to need loyalty in his people, in order to hold onto a cohesive unit – be it a small village or a large kingdom – against any who would seek to usurp their position as leader. The people lived in a very male-oriented patrimonial system, and by its very nature, unstable and constantly shifting. Kings would seek and form bonds between themselves and anyone they deemed useful, especially warriors or other kings. Most common forms of this male bondage were created by either swearing allegiance, kinship, employment, or loyalty driven by a common purpose.

"Hrólfr Kraki and his warriors leap across the flames.
Illustration by the Danish Lorenz Frølich in a 19th-century book."
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Often formed was a bond of common purpose, when men worked together for what they saw as some form of good versus evil, such as when Helgi and Hroar’s foster father Regin helped the boys escape from their uncle King Frodi once their lives were under threat by taking them to a hiding place, even though Regin later had to swear allegiance to King Frodi in order to save his family and estates. Regin then, later still, demonstrated how his bond to the boys ran deeper than his sworn allegiance to the king, when the boys followed their sister to the hall of Frodi and were discovered by the seeress. While they ran from the hall he ‘extinguished all the lights’ (Byock 8) thus creating confusion and chaos to buy time for the boys. Regin then used signals and ‘muttering to himself’ to communicate to the boys outside the hall without speaking directly to them as he did not “want to violate his oaths to King Frodi” (8) as Helgi figured out. At least in part, Regin’s bond of loyalty to the boys was because they were seen as the rightful heirs of the kingdom, and Frodi the usurper who had committed a great and dishonourable wrong by murdering his own brother for the throne.

"Rolf Krake sår guld på Fyrisvall (1830) by Huge Hamilton.
Hrolf Kraki fleeing the Swedish king Adils on the Fýrisvellir."
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Some bonds were forged out of fear or coercion, such as when King Frodi coerced people into swearing allegiance to him under threat of torture (1). This type of oath was seen to be as binding as how we would regard a written and signed contract today. Any breaking of this bond would have been taken most seriously and likely retribution meted out. It was extremely important to the basic structure of society to have cohesion, recognised leadership, and bonded underlings. It was not always a healthy bond, but it was part of a code of society that men, especially, were bound by. In contrast, the bond between the brothers Helgi and Hroar was a very healthy, respectful and loving one. They had been through much together, when they’d had to hide from their uncle as fugitives, and once he was dead and they inherited the leadership of Denmark there were no altercations between them over who would become King. Instead, Hroar left for Northumberland, where he eventually became King there, and a visit home some years later had no thoughts of challenging his brothers place as King in Denmark but only asked for some ‘treasured possessions’, especially the ring which had been their fathers, that “both of us would like to own” (16) and was all he wanted in return for giving up his rightful share of the kingdom. That bond went deeper than a mere blood bond, as that never assured siblings of reciprocated loyalty, as the boys’ father found out to his detriment, being murdered by his own brother.

"Hrólfr Kraki spreading gold to escape the Swedes, by Jenny Nyström (1895)."
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Bonds of employment, as seen between King Adils and his berserkers, was transient and uncertain, constantly tested for loyalty, as when the newly-arrived warrior Svipdag challenged the kings berserkers to fight him in King Adils’ hall, under the encouragement of the king himself. The queen made a statement that ‘there was nothing wrong in the king’s wish to find out how much support he [had]’ (27). The king was then quick to show the berserkers no loyalty after they were defeated by Svipdag, going so far as to outlaw them for their incompetent combat skills (28). In the culture they lived in it would have been imperative for the king to be surrounded by extremely competent and loyal people as a king was in such a position that others would seek to challenge that position, either from internal or external forces. Adils did not forge his bonds through inspiring loyalty and respect though, but by fear, intimidation, abuse, treachery and empty promises, such as when the king sent Svipdag out into the woods to again battle the berserkers and promised to follow with a force to aid Svipdag, but failed to do so and Svipdag suffered disabling wounds during the battle. Afterwards, he declared to the king “I want to look for a king who will honour us more than you do. You have rewarded me poorly for defending your land and for our winning so great a victory for you” (30). Svipdag had realised that the bond between them was a very lopsided one, and he expected more from someone he chose to show loyalty to. This was evident when he, and his brothers, decided to seek the court of King Hrolf after hearing their fathers description of him: “…so trustworthy and particular about his friends that his equal cannot be found … [and] he has exacted tribute from all kings who are near him, for everyone is willing to serve him.” (31). The saga further highlighted the difference in the attitudes and styles of leadership as between Adils and Hrolf when the narrator states about Hrolf that ‘all the best warriors wanted to be in his following’ and ‘he was far more generous with rewards than any of the other kings’ (33). The overall tone suggested how King Hrolf held bonds of loyalty between himself and his warriors, inspiring it rather than bullying men into it. His men seemed to have great respect for him, which generally made the men try harder and be more successful in battle. They knew Hrolf did not make empty promises to them.

Parents of Hrolf.
Yrsa falling in love with Helgi, but she does not know that he is her father,
by Jenny Nyström (1895).
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Glimpses of some of the important types of male bondage found during the Dark Ages were scattered throughout the saga. Although an Icelandic saga, its heroes and villains spanned several Scandinavian countries while being interlinked by adventure, revenge, trickery, loyalty, kinship, greed, and shifting allegiances. Bonds were formed between people when there was something to gain by both parties. Sometimes it was based on a common purpose, sometimes based on the fear of or domination of one party over another. The Dark Ages were times based on war rather than peaceful diplomacy, life could be harsh and demanding. Having at least one of the important bonds was crucial to the basic structure of their male-dominated society.

map of Iceland
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Most common forms of this male bondage were created by either swearing allegiance, kinship, employment, or loyalty driven by a common purpose.

Genealogy

The dynasty of Halfdan-Helgi-Hrolf belonged to the line of the Skjoldungs. The Skjoldungs are known in the Beowulf epic as the Scyldings. The Skjoldungs were descendants of Skiold (Scyld Scefing), the founder of the dynasty of Denmark. In the Hrolfs saga Kraka, Skiold is not mentioned at all.
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This essay was one I wrote as an assignment, while obtaining my University degree. I have included the reference list and bibliography - reference materials I used while writing - just as I’d had to for its submission. It has never before been published anywhere public, though. Images have been added for visual interest.

List of Works Cited
Byock, Jesse L. The Saga of King Hrolf Kraki. Penguin Classics. London: Penguin, 1998. Print.

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(extra tags: #culture #minnowsupport #mythology #darkages)